Over the past few years, more and more European cities have been taking new or additional measures to curb toxic air pollution and tackle the climate crisis fuelled by road traffic. City leaders have introduced “Urban Vehicle Access Regulations” that cover a variety of measures, ranging from low-emission zones to general restrictions of motorised transport overall, such as low traffic zones.

In this literature review, we found that such policies can deliver a triple win for cleaner air, the climate and local business. In Madrid, for instance, spending increased by 8.6% in the area covered by the low-emission zone compared to 3.3% in the city overall during the 2018 Christmas period.